Ethnic beliefs
The religious beliefs of the Manchu people are relatively diverse. The early Manchu and its predecessor ethnic groups were mainly based on Shamanism. In 1644, the Qing Dynasty took control of the Central Plains and, after being exposed to the culture of the Central Plains, in addition to retaining some shamanic customs, the Manchu people were most influenced by the folk beliefs of the Central Plains. Buddhism and Christianity also have certain influences. The contemporary Manchu people are mainly non-religious individuals.
Shamanism
In ancient times, the Manchu people believed in Shamanism, and the clergy were divided into the family shaman in charge of sacrificial offerings and the shaman in charge of jumping gods. Early Manchus believed in shamanism. Shaman means "witch" and is polytheistic. Shamanism believes that the world has three levels, with the upper level being "heaven" and the gods residing in it. The middle level is inhabited by humans; the lower level is "hell", inhabited by ghosts and gods. The blessings and misfortunes of humanity are bestowed by the gods. When hunters leave home to hunt, they should pray to the gods. Pray for the hunting god to capture more prey; Pray to the God of the Way, so as not to get lost in the dense mountains; Pray for the blessings of God and seek to suffer less in the mountains.
The early Manchu people worshipped over a hundred gods, most of whom were goddesses, with only a few being male gods. The male god that often appears is the hunting god. Various gods have idols, some made of clay, some made of wood, and some sewn with cloth. The hunting god has a burly figure, wears a bow and arrow, and has two small whiskers on his mouth, making his image realistic.
When hunters offer sacrifices to the gods, they need to choose a suitable place. First, a pole is erected, and then a two meter high earthen platform is piled up. The hunters line up in front of the platform and select a prestigious elder to sacrifice on the platform, pray to the gods, and then run towards the mountainous area.
Shamanism is a primitive polytheism. All ethnic groups in northern China used to believe in shamanism. In the long-term historical development process, enduring social and economic changes, this religion has been replaced by Buddhism (Lamaism) and Islam in many ethnic groups. Only the Manchus, Oroqen, Daur, and others believed in it until the liberation. Shamanism includes natural worship, totem worship, and ancestor worship, as well as ritual activities.
The worship of nature by the Manchu ancestors was linked to hunting and gathering activities. Under these conditions, food and clothing are derived from wild animals, and people regard the wild animals obtained through hunting as a gift from the "gods" who dominate the beasts, and therefore worship them.
At that time, the ancestors of the Manchu people did not understand the origin of humanity and believed that a certain animal had a blood relationship with their clan, so they regarded it as their own ancestor and worshipped it, which is called totemism.
The ancestors of the Manchu ethnic group gradually formed mourning activities for the deceased and their anniversaries with the development of the concept of soul. So there was the "god" of one's own ancestors. Since people have created these worshipped gods, they will inevitably place their own safety and blessings on these gods. As a result, various sacrificial activities were gradually formed to pray for "gods". This gave rise to the messenger of communication between humans and gods - the shaman.
There are dozens of "gods" in shamanism, among which the "gods" belonging to natural worship include the gods of heaven, earth, wind, rain, thunder, and fire. There are also gods derived from numerous animal names. All these 'gods' have their own idols and idols. For example, 'Bear God' uses a bear skin as its counterpart. Some cut wood as idols, some use stones as idols, and some draw worshipped 'gods' on paper or cloth.
These idols are not yet true 'gods' and can only exist as symbols. To interact with real' gods' through these idols, shamans who can communicate with 'gods' are needed. It can be seen that shamans were the communicators between the real world and the supernatural world in ancient society.
Shamans are not hereditary, and after the death of the previous generation of shamans, there is a gap of several years before the birth of the next generation of shamans. The new shaman is believed to have been chosen by the "gods" of the previous generation of shamans. Therefore, those who are not euthanized at birth, mentally disordered, or unable to recover from prolonged illness are considered signs of becoming shamans. To learn to be a shaman, one must learn the prayers for the gods and be familiar with the content of shaman religious activities. At the final exam, he jumped out of his wits and was recognized as a shaman "deity" possessed, which qualified him for religious activities.
Shamans must have a set of tools such as "divine hats", "divine clothing", and "divine drums". The "Divine Hat" uses copper or iron bars as the hat frame, with a copper eagle on the front side of the hat top and two copper antlers on the back side. The number of antlers indicates the rank of the shaman. The "Divine Clothes" are tight fitting double breasted robes, usually made of deer skin, adorned with bronze mirrors, small mirrors, waist bells, and other accessories around the body. There are streamers on the back of the lower body. "Shengu" uses Flat noodles as its edge and goat skin, calf skin or roe deer skin as its surface. In addition, there are tools such as divine knives and stuffs. The shaman jumps up and beats the "divine drum" rhythmically, with bronze mirrors and waist bells ringing in unison. The streamers fly around like warriors on the battlefield, showcasing the majesty of the "divine spirit".
The religious activities of shamans are mainly manifested in the following aspects: firstly, claiming to "eliminate disasters and protect human safety", in order to eliminate disasters for the sacrificial family. Secondly, claiming to "offer sacrifices to gods and exorcise ghosts for patients" is a frequent religious activity among shamans. Based on the patient's symptoms, if it is believed that an "external ghost" is causing the disease, a bonfire will be set up outside the gate or near the village, and the shaman will "jump out" next to the bonfire and make symbolic shooting, indicating "exorcism". If it is believed that it is a violation of a certain deity that causes illness, then pigs, cows, or sheep will be sacrificed, and the shaman will preside over the sacrifice, 'requesting God's forgiveness'. When encountering critically ill patients, they believe that their "soul" has left the body and entered the "underworld". They then offer sacrifices at night, and the shaman's "god" brings the patient's "soul" back to the "underworld" and attaches it to the body. It is said that no matter what kind of illness you have, no matter how severe the condition is, shamans can use different methods to cure you. Thirdly, it claims to be able to "pray for a bountiful harvest". The production activities in different regions are different, and the forms of religious activities to pray for a bumper harvest are also different. When hunters cannot capture wild animals for a long time, they offer sacrifices to the "gods" of shamans. During the sacrificial ceremony, willow sticks were first used to make models of deer, pigs, and other animals. The shamans were draped in battle, creating the appearance of drawing bows and shooting arrows. As a result, the deer and pig models were shot down one after another, and the hunters could then climb the mountain. It is said that they would soon be able to obtain a large number of prey. If encountering drought, insect infestation, or floods, Of course, shamans also have a way. They put on clothes and went to worship the "River God" and "Insect God", so the weather was favorable, pests disappeared, livestock flourished, and grain was abundant.
Shamans pray to each type of 'god' with different prayers. The prayer contains various "gods" with historical origins, great achievements, and the temperament and hobbies of this deity, thus giving each type of god its own unique "tall image". There are different ways of offering sacrifices to different "gods". Some "gods" offer sacrifices during the day, some "gods" must offer sacrifices at night, some "gods" must offer sacrifices indoors, some "gods" must offer sacrifices in the wild, some "gods" like livestock such as pigs, sheep, cows, and some "gods" like birds or fish. The offerings must be suitable for the different tastes of the "gods". Supplying the wrong one not only does not work, but also causes anger and disaster for the "gods". The religious activities of shamans not only complicate the content of shamanism, but it has also formalized the images of various' gods'.
Christianity
There are fewer believers in Christianity among the Manchu people. Christianity is a Western religion that began to be introduced to China as early as the Tang Dynasty. It was called Nestorianism during the Yuan Dynasty, and the number of people who became known as Yelikewen Christianity increased. In the early Qing Dynasty, with the development of capitalism, Western colonizers expanded overseas and accelerated the pace of missionary work in China. Due to the many contradictions between its teachings and traditional Chinese ideology and culture, it has aroused the vigilance of all parties.
The Qing rulers initially adopted a policy of resistance and restriction towards Western missionary activities. The Kang, Yong, and Qian dynasties all issued prohibitions, allowing only those who respected Chinese tradition and complied with Chinese laws to operate within a certain range. Therefore, the missionary activities of Christianity are limited, and compared to Buddhism, Taoism, and other religions, there are not many believers. However, since the early Qing Dynasty, some missionaries who came to China through the study of Chinese Confucian classics, introduced Western scientific knowledge, and interspersed them with Chinese customs to preach, gradually attracting the interest of upper class figures and intellectuals in the court. As a result, there was an increase in Chinese believers, including a small number of Manchu people.
The fragment from the Manchu Bible should point out that among believers, there were royal nobles such as Wang and Beile. For example, the earliest member of the royal family who believed in Catholicism was Prince Dapei of Heshuojian (1688-1752), who was the fifth grandson of Emperor Qingxian Zutak and a descendant of Shuerhazi. During the Yongzheng period, he was appointed as a general of the Zhenguo, a left attendant of the Ministry of Military Affairs, a governor of Gansu, a governor of Huguang, Fujian and Zhejiang, a governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, a servant of the Ministry of Personnel, a national son offering wine, and a minister of the Ministry of Personnel. In the thirteenth year of the Qianlong reign (1748), he was granted the title of Prince Heshuo Jian and was a philosopher among the Manchu nobility who promoted Western science. He wrote books such as "Records of Practice" and "Annotations to the Book of Zhouyi", which were praised by the people of his time. He joined the Catholic Church approximately before the 58th year of the Kangxi reign (1719). There were also the sons of the royal family Belesunus who followed the faith of Jesus.
Sunu (1648-1725) was the grandson of Nurhaci IV and a descendant of Chu Ying. He initially inherited the Duke of Fu and was appointed as the Left Patriarch of the Zongren Mansion, the Chief Executive of the Compilation of Yuzhi, and the Commander of Manchukuo and General of Fengtian under the Inlaid Red Flag.
In the 37th year of the Kangxi reign (1698), he was conferred the title of Beizi, and in the 61st year (1722), he was conferred the title of Beile. Due to his involvement in the struggle for the throne of the Kangxi princes, he was punished by Yongzheng and sent to Youwei (now Youyu County, Shanxi), where he died in exile. He had a total of thirteen sons, nine of whom joined the Jesuit Church in the years of Kang and Yong, and all received baptism to give their Christian names. Among them, Shuerchen, Surkin, Kurchen, Urchen, and Leshheng were the five most steadfast believers in the faith.
In April of the fifth year of the Yongzheng reign (1727), the Five Ministers once discussed and wrote: "The sons of Sunu, such as Urzhu, and Aqna (the eighth son of Emperor Kangxi, Yun), formed a party and rebelled against the government, and returned to the Western cults privately. Please execute Urchen and others in a timely manner." In the autumn and July of the same year, Beile Sunu had applied the decree of the Holy Ancestor, with the participation of the king, ministers, and the Ministry of Justice, Obtained an edict: "Sunu's father remained steadfast and ordered his sons, Surkin, Kulchen, and Urchen, to submit to Western religions. The edict was issued to reform, but Yi unexpectedly resisted and said, 'May we be willing to correct the Dharma, but we cannot change our religion.' Now we have discovered the memorial of the former sage, who dares to write and smear it recklessly, and those who see it will point out. They should follow the Great Contrary Law and practice the Dharma. However, as many as forty descendants of Yi have learned to practice the Dharma, they cannot bear it. If they go or stay separately, there is no way to separate them. They are temporarily exempt from death and will still be imprisoned as before . [1] On July 25th of the same year, Emperor Yongzheng wrote in an edict: "Surkin, Kulchen, and Urchen believed in foreign religions from the West, and after my repeated edicts to reform them, I openly rebelled and declared my wish to uphold the righteous law, but refused to change it. It seems that they have forgotten their roots and betrayed the monarch, disregarded the national law, lost their hearts and disregarded reason, and were shocked to hear of it.
At that time, Urchen and Surkin were tortured to death, indicating that once they became religious, they remained steadfast until death. The above are some famous figures among the Manchu ethnic group who joined Christianity in a prominent capacity. As for those who did not disclose their beliefs, there were also many. By the end of the Qing Dynasty, the number of Manchu people who believed in Christianity was even higher.
Tibetan Buddhism
Due to historical reasons, the status of the Mongols in the Qing Dynasty was second only to that of the Manchus. In order to consolidate the political alliance between Manchuria and Mongolia, there has always been a tradition of intermarriage among the upper classes of Manchuria and Mongolia. Many emperors in the Qing Dynasty were empresses of the Mongolian Gege tribe, such as the Empress Borjijit of Huangtai and the famous Empress Xiaozhuang of the Horqin tribe of the Mongolian people. Due to the Mongolian belief in Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism), Lamaism quickly spread to the Manchu people. Before entering the customs, the Qing Dynasty built Shisheng Temple in Shengjing and often went to worship; After entering the Shanhai Pass, the Lama Temple was built in Beijing, and there were many lamas in Chengde Mountain Resort. Buddhist deities have also been included in shaman worship, and some Manchus even named their children "Guanyin Bao" or "Bodhisattva Bao", indicating that their Buddhist beliefs have a profound influence among Manchus.
Eagle Worship
In the Manchu settlements in the upper reaches of the Songhua River in the Wula area of Jilin, there is still an ancient saying that "eagles and dogs are priceless". On the genealogy of certain Manchu surnames, there is a pattern of eagles flapping their wings and taking off, and even the image of eagles is engraved on the tombstones of their ancestors. In the reputation of the Manchu elderly who are good at telling ancient stories, the eagle is the deity that saved their ancestors, the Jurchen. In the Manchu clan that retains the Wild God Festival, the Eagle God is the head god of various animal deities. On his god hat, there are also metal models of eagles, all of which are remnants of the traditional practice of worshipping eagles.
The eagle worship custom of the Qing Manchu ancestors in Haidongqing can be traced back to distant prehistoric periods, which can be confirmed by certain archaeological relics. In the summer of 1972, archaeologists in Heilongjiang Province discovered an important Neolithic cultural site in Xingkai Lake. Among the unearthed artifacts, there were three artworks reflecting primitive religion: one was an eagle head carved from animal bones; The second is a swimming fish carved from bone horns; The third is a portrait of a person in pottery sculpture. The bone carved eagle head is a seven centimeter long round sculpture carefully carved and ground on animal bones using hard stone tools. The entire body is in the shape of a crescent moon, and the eagle's eyes and mouth are clearly carved. The techniques are simple and clumsy, forming a look of searching and hunting for food. After measurement, this vividly shaped bone eagle head has a history of at least 5 to 6 thousand years. From an artistic perspective, modern people are still impressed and amazed by the excellent skills of primitive people in observing and capturing animal images. However, at the level of production at that time, in human cultural consciousness, art aesthetic concepts had not yet become independent, which means it had not yet separated from the swaddling of religious consciousness. In this era, the overwhelming primary task of the early people's groups was the struggle for survival. In our modern eyes, the "art" of this period mainly reflects the survival consciousness covered with religious and mythological colors. The location of the Xinkailiu Cultural Site is the hometown of the Manchu ancestor Sushen people. Therefore, it is generally correct for us to use the bone carved eagle head as the earliest example of the Manchu ancestors' worship of eagles.
Throughout their long historical and cultural development, the Manchu people and their ancestors were influenced by various religions, such as Taoism, Buddhism (or Lamaism), but the dominant one was still the indigenous primitive religion, Shamanism. In the 1950s and 1960s, certain Manchu surnames, such as Nimacha, Shiketeri, Xiheteri, and Kuyala, were referred to as "non Kouxiang surnames". They also retained a relatively complete primitive form of shamanism, with its main feature being the preservation of wild god rituals. Wild gods refer to animal gods, including dozens of spiritual birds and beasts such as waterfowl, crows, tigers, bears, pythons, wild boars, hedgehogs, etc., with the eagle god as the head god. It can be seen that the long-standing custom of worshipping eagles among the Manchu people has elevated eagles to become one of the main deities of religious worship. The cultural life of the bone eagle head, which was carved six thousand years ago, has continued into modern times.
In daily life, eagles can spread their wings in the air and travel thousands of miles per day, while the thinking of the Manchu ancestors was higher than that of eagles in reality. Because it embodies their ideals and beliefs, reflecting the dawn of early human humanism, the eagle sublimates into a divine eagle. The eagle is a symbol, sublimation, and elevation of the national spirit, which is one of the internal cultural reasons why the Manchu people were able to quickly rise and dominate the Chinese historical stage.
References:
Draft of the Qing Dynasty History - Shizong Benji
Chen Yuan: "The Imperial Household of the Fengtian Bishop during the Yongqian Period"
Manchu Tibetan Buddhism China Network [citation date 2014-02-10]
Manchu Eagle Worship China Net 2008-12-18 [citation date 2014-07-17]
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